Hedonism is a philosophical theory that suggests the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain are the most important goals in life. The term comes from the Greek word hedone which means ‘pleasure’.
The ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus was a strong defender of hedonism. He believed that by seeking pleasurable experiences and avoiding pain, one could achieve true happiness, and hence achieve the good life.
As Epicurus once said,
Pleasure is the beginning and the end of living happily.
In other words, in order to live a rewarding life, the only thing we need is pleasure. Because hedonists are concerned with their own pleasure, the theory is closely associated with egoism.
Types of pleasure
However, as some hedonists point out, not all pleasures are of equal value. Epicurus himself made the following distinction:
Physical pleasures - these are immediate, sensory pleasures such as the taste of good food, the warmth of the sun on your skin, or the excitement of a rollercoaster ride.
Higher pleasures - these are intellectual or emotional pleasures, including the joy of reading a good book, the satisfaction of solving a challenging puzzle, or the fulfilment of a deep conversation with a friend. Epicurus argued that higher pleasures are more valuable and lead to greater happiness than physical pleasures. Higher pleasures typically last longer, and enrich our lives more over time, which contributes to our long-term well-being. Friendship is a particularly important higher pleasure, as he wrote,
"Of all the things which wisdom provides to make us entirely happy, much the greatest is the possession of friendship."
Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham (18th century English philosopher) claimed that people are motivated only by the pursuit of their own pleasure and avoiding the feeling of pain. This version of egoism is called hedonism.
The theory of hedonism has two central claims:
People always act out of self-interest.
People are only motivated by gaining pleasure and avoiding pain.
In other words, the only reason people do anything is to increase their own pleasure.
Hedonists believe that there are many kinds of ‘pleasures’ that motivate us, including:
contentment
happiness
relief
And there are many kinds of ‘pains’ that we want to avoid, including:
physical pain
mental anguish
misery
Benefits of a hedonistic lifestyle
Living a hedonistic lifestyle (one which focuses on pleasure) can have several benefits:
Immediate satisfaction - pursuing pleasure can bring instant joy and contentment. Engaging in activities that make you happy can improve your mood and overall well-being.
Positive experiences - actively seeking out pleasurable experiences can fill your life with positive moments, making your day-to-day existence more enjoyable.
Personal fulfilment - focusing on what brings you happiness can lead to a more fulfilling and satisfying life. When you prioritise your own happiness, you are likely to feel more content and at peace with yourself.
An Epicurean hedonistic lifestyle focuses on seeking pleasure and avoiding pain, but in a thoughtful and balanced way. Instead of indulging in constant luxury or excess, Epicureans believe in finding higher pleasures that lead to lasting happiness. They value friendship, knowledge, and a calm mind over temporary physical pleasures. Epicureans avoid things that cause long-term pain or discomfort, like being greedy or harmful behaviours. By living moderately, cultivating meaningful relationships, and understanding the world, they aim to achieve the good life.
Criticisms of hedonism
While hedonism initially sounds appealing, it also faces several criticisms:
Selfishness - a hedonistic lifestyle can lead to selfish behaviour, where individuals focus solely on their own happiness, potentially neglecting the needs and feelings of others. This self-centred approach can harm relationships and social connections.
Harmful pleasures - some pleasures, such as excessive eating, drinking, or engaging in risky behaviours, can be harmful and lead to long-term negative consequences. What might seem pleasurable in the moment can result in health problems, addiction, or other serious issues.
Short-term focus - hedonism’s emphasis on immediate gratification can sometimes prevent individuals from achieving deeper, more meaningful happiness. Focusing only on short-term pleasures might actually prevent personal growth, goal achievement, and the development of lasting fulfilment.
For example, imagine someone who constantly seeks the pleasure of eating fast food. While it might bring short-term pleasure, over time, it could lead to health problems and unhappiness. Similarly, prioritising instant gratification might stop a person from working towards long-term goals that could, in time, bring greater satisfaction.
The marshmallow test
The marshmallow test is a famous experiment in psychology about self-control and patience. In this test, a young child sits in an empty room, and a marshmallow is placed on a table in front of them. The child is told that they can eat it right away, or they can wait for some time (around 15 minutes), and if they do so, they will get a second marshmallow as a reward. The test is used to see how well people can delay gratification, which means waiting for something better instead of taking what they can get right away.
Researchers found that children who were able to wait tended to do better in school and had other successes later in life, showing that self-control can be an important skill for achieving long-term goals.
Argument for hedonism: personal examples
We can all find examples of when we acted in the pursuit of pleasure. This might count as evidence for hedonism.
Hedonists argue that if you were to ask someone why they acted in a certain way, it is likely that they will answer, ‘because I thought it would make me happy’ - and this suggests that they have acted out of self-interest - they have only been concerned with their own pleasure. Bentham argued that even behaviour that appears to be altruistic can be explained in terms of hedonism.
Argument against hedonism: Joseph Butler
Joseph Butler (18th century English philosopher) presented a famous argument against Jeremy Bentham’s theory of hedonism. In what follows, we will consider a version of his argument.
If we return to the story about Abraham Lincoln and the pigs, Bentham would state that the reason Lincoln stopped to help the animals was to avoid the feeling of guilt he would have felt if he had just driven by.
Guilt is a negative feeling - a kind of pain (the feeling of guilt is not nice) - so something that we would want to avoid. According to hedonism, the well-being of the pigs was not important to Lincoln, because the only thing that was important to Abraham Lincoln was his own pleasure (and lack of pain).
However - and this is the point against hedonism - why would Lincoln have felt guilt if he had not cared about the pigs themselves? In other words, if Lincoln hadn’t cared about the animals, he would have felt no guilt if he had not stopped to help them. This suggests that there are other things that are important to us than only our own pleasure - in this case, the well-being of the pigs.
Here is another example to explain the point against hedonism:
Howard donates some money to a charity that sends mosquito nets to areas that need help reducing the spread of malaria. This gives Howard satisfaction.
Hedonists would argue that Howard is motivated by the personal reward - the feeling of satisfaction (a kind of pleasure) that resulted from him donating the money.
However, the critic would respond that Howard only feels satisfaction because he believes that preventing people suffering malaria is a good thing. So the concern for the well-being of others had to come before the feeling of satisfaction, and is the real motivation for donating the money.
After all, if Howard did not care about others, then he would not feel satisfaction for donating money.